Key Battles

March 13 - May 7, 1954 – While fought years before American troops would be involved in Vietnam in any significant way, the Battle of Dien Bien Phu would have a profound effect on American involvement in Vietnam. French Union forces had been engaging Viet Minh forces for nearly a decade when General Henri Navarre took command of the Indochina War in May 1953. Navarre began preparing a strategy whereby the French would establish a fortified airfield near the village of Điện Biên Phủ along the Laotian border, with the hope of impeding Viet Ming supply routes and luring the communist forces into attacking the well-defended French position. In November 1953, the French moved to occupy the valley and begin fortifying their position, while the Viet Minh forces under Võ Nguyên Giáp methodically built up their strength as well. The French occupied the valley area, while Giáp built his strength in the hills around them. Slowly but surely, he amassed huge quantities of supplies and weaponry, including heavy artillery and anti-aircraft weapons. Many artillery pieces were secretly dragged up the hills surrounding the base, until they could fire down from concealed positions on to the French. While the French amassed around 15,000 troops at Dien Bien Phu, they were outnumbered by nearly 50,000 Viet Minh who had encircled the base. On March 13, a massive bombardment signaled the start of the attack. The French were unable to maintain counter-battery fire on the Viet Minh positions, and the airfield was quickly rendered unusable. Air resupply was impeded by the powerful air defenses the Viet Minh had amassed, and the French were whittled away within their fortress. American officials considered intervening, but the Eisenhower Administration opted against involvement. On May 7, the base finally surrendered, just as negotiations began in Geneva on the fate of French Indochina. Dien Bien Phu would loom large for the rest of the war, especially during the Battle of Khe Sanh. 

August 2 - 4, 1964 – On August 2, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox was on patrol preforming intelligence collection on the North Vietnamese. Sailing in the international waters of the Tonkin Gulf off the coast of North Vietnam, three North Vietnamese torpedo boats confronted and attacked the Maddox. The attack was driven off with assistance from carrier-based aircraft. USS Turner Joy joined the Maddox in her patrols, which resumed on August 3. On the night of August 4, in poor weather conditions and limited visibility, both ships reported that they were under attack. Radar and sonar signals seemed to suggest that the ships were under attack, though the captain of the Maddox did send a second report urging caution in regard to the accuracy of the initials reports. Officials in Washington were aware of the less-than-certain nature of the August 4 incident, but on August 5 ordered retaliatory limited air raids against North Vietnamese naval facilities. On August 7, 1964, the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed the House of Representatives unanimously, and passed in the Senate with a vote of 98-2. President Johnson was authorized “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression.” This act would form the legal basis for the American war effort in Vietnam. Shortly after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was passed and in the years since, many have questioned the events of August 4, 1964. For many, the events in Tonkin Gulf continue to be a subject of great speculation and controversy. 

November 14 - 17, 1965 – The first major battle between American and Vietnamese forces, the Battle of Ia Drang Valley would be claimed as a victory by both sides and would offer important lessons for each army. Located in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam, the valley was seen as a crucial The People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN) supply route into the South. American commanders, namely General William Westmoreland, decided to test a new battle tactic of “air mobility” by deploying American forces largely by helicopter. On November 14, the U.S. First Calvary Division established landing zones in the valley and immediately came under fire from PAVN forces. Continual reinforcements via helicopter and sustained aerial bombardment decimated the Vietnamese positions. By the end of fighting, 305 Americans had been killed compared to at least 1,000 plus PAVN troops killed. General Westmoreland and much of the American leadership viewed the casualty statistics as a vindication of their planning – air mobility, immense bombardment, and a focus on creating mass enemy casualties would become the central focus of American tactics moving forward. Meanwhile, PAVN commanders learned to avoid attacking in large formations and to engage the Americans at close range to mitigate any artillery advantages. Ia Drang set the course for the war to come, and would serve as a taste of future conflict for both sides. 

January 21 to July 5, 1968 – The U.S. first established a special forces base at Khe Sanh in 1962, and it remained one of the westernmost American bases near the demilitarized zone (DMZ). Located in South Vietnam just fourteen miles south of the border with North Vietnam and six miles east of the border with Laos, the base gradually grew in importance until 1967 when General William Westmoreland stationed 6,000 U.S. Marines there to interdict the flow of supplies on the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Parts of three PAVN divisions, around 15,000-20,000 men, began to surround the base before launching an assault on January 21. The Marines at Khe Sanh were placed under siege, with aerial resupply and massive aerial firepower keeping the base afloat. The White House was keenly aware of the legacy of Dien Bien Phu, and Westmoreland offered assurances that the base would not fall. A relief operation began on April 1, and the siege of Khe Sanh was lifted by April 15. After the immense effort to defend the base, it was abandoned by American forces in June 1968 as plans for a raid on the Ho Chi Minh Trail were abandoned. There remains a strong controversy as to the overall North Vietnamese objective at Khe Sanh: historians argue as to whether General Giáp (the overall strategist behind the campaign) hoped to win another Dien Bien Phu like victory, or whether the Khe Sanh operation was a diversion for broad communist action throughout South Vietnam during the Tet Offensive. Regardless, 205 Marines died at Khe Sanh, physically counting around 1,600 dead North Vietnamese Army (NVA) soldiers and estimating North Vietnamese losses between 10-15,000. 

January 30 to March 28, 1968 – Tet, a traditional Vietnamese holiday celebrating the beginning of a new lunar year, had normally been observed as an unofficial cease-fire. However, in late 1967, several North Vietnamese leaders had decided that the military deadlock needed to be broken and hypothesized that a massive offensive throughout the urban centers of the Republic of Vietnam could usher in a general uprising amongst the war-weary South. As such, early in the morning on January 30, 1968, thirteen cities throughout the central portion of South Vietnam were attacked by Viet Cong forces. Within 24 hours, further coordinated attacks were launched on military bases, government facilities, cities, and towns throughout South Vietnam. While the American Marine base at Khe Sanh continued to fight off attackers, the city of Huế was stormed by North Vietnamese forces. In one particularly daring assault, a Viet Cong assault team breached the walls of the U.S. embassy compound in Saigon. Although all of the attackers were killed, the embassy attack was well-publicized. The overall Tet Offensive was turned back with substantial losses for the North Vietnamese, and the campaign ended by late March. Although many American and The Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) servicemen (along with thousands of civilians) were killed or wounded, the personnel losses for the North Vietnamese were far greater. The Viet Cong and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) suffered around 45,000 casualties combined during the Tet Offensive, with the Viet Cong being so hard hit that it often had to rely on PAVN reinforcements for much of the remainder of the war. Nevertheless, for an American public growing tired of the continual fighting in Vietnam with no end in sight, Tet was a turning point. Any expectations that the war was close to ending were shattered, and past reassurances from the Johnson Administration and General Westmoreland about the coming victory in Vietnam seemed dubious, to say the least. Heeding public pressure, President Johnson announced on March 31 that he would limit the bombing of North Vietnam, call for negotiations – and most surprisingly – not run for re-election in 1968. 

January 31 to March 2, 1968 – South Vietnam’s third-largest city, an ancient royal capital, and located near to the DMZ, Huế had remained relatively free of conflict during much of the early war. The city was largely under the protection of Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) troops, who were in turn spread out along the main highway from Huế to the DMZ. On January 31, with the start of the Tet Offensive, a powerful PAVN and Viet Cong assault quickly pushed back the scattered ARVN and U.S. Marine forces. The North Vietnamese established control over much of the city, while the Marines fell back to the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) compound south of the Perfume River. Reorganizing, a combined American/ARVN counterattack began to push the North Vietnamese forces back. Increasing American reinforcements, including elements of the First Cavalry Division supplemented by offshore naval artillery, land-based howitzers, and air strikes, proved instrumental in retaking the city. However, fierce house-to-house fighting slowed conflict on the ground as North Vietnamese troops dug into the urban environment. It would take a month to clear the entire city – with extra effort being paid to the entrenched North Vietnamese troops occupying the walled citadel of the imperial city – and around 700 ARVN and American forces would be killed, with thousands more wounded. The North Vietnamese would lose 5,000 in Huế proper and up to 3,000 more in the surrounding area. The city was left in ruins, with around 50% of its buildings destroyed and the ancient citadel ruined. Thousands of citizens were left homeless. Moreover, in addition to the multitudes of civilians killed and wounded in the fighting, thousands of civilians were systematically executed during the brief communist occupation of the city. Around 5,000 civilians were listed as dead or missing in the aftermath of the fighting, scarring Huế for the duration of the war. 

April 29 to June 30, 1970 – Cambodia had long been a launching point for communist attacks on South Vietnam. Cambodia itself was in the midst of its own civil strife, with the Khmer Rouge fighting against government forces with help from the North Vietnamese. In the past, the Kingdom of Cambodia under Norodom Sihanouk had tried to stay neutral and did not openly oppose the communist bases in their country. In March 1970, Sihanouk was removed from power by Prime Minister Lon Nol, and the new government began attacking Viet Cong positions in Cambodia. Sensing an opportunity to prove his resolve to Hanoi, buy time for his Vietnamization (the training and transfer of power to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam and other South Vietnamese forces) programs, and relieve pressure on South Vietnam generally, President Nixon opted to invade Cambodia. On April 30, Nixon announced in a televised address that American and South Vietnamese troops would enter Cambodia as a response to North Vietnamese aggression. 12,000 U.S. Army troops and 8,000 Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) troops attacked along a large 100 mile front. Nixon spoke of the Central Office for South Vietnam (COSVN, a supposed “Jungle Pentagon” where all Viet Cong actions in South Vietnam were planned) and said it would be found and destroyed. Debate still exists as to whether COSVN existed and what form it took. The invasion resulted in around 2,000 enemy fatalities and a large amount of equipment captured, but no central planning center was found, nor was there a long term strategic gain. However, the invasion did cause massive protests in the U.S., including a confrontation and shooting at Kent State University in early May. Additionally, the invasion further destabilized Cambodia and weakened the central government’s fight against the Khmer Rouge. 

February 8 to March 25, 1971 – In an effort to prove the capability of the armed forces of South Vietnam, Lam Son 719 was planned as a significant raid on the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos. Legally prohibited from entering Laotian territory, American forces provided logistical support within South Vietnam but the main effort was carried out by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and several units of South Vietnamese marines. American forces occupied the abandoned base at Khe Sanh and established a staging area for the South Vietnamese. The South Vietnamese objective was to drive into Laos along the rugged Route 9, cut into the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and raid the administrative center of Tchepone before returning back to South Vietnam. 16,000 ARVN troops were equipped with American supplied tanks and helicopters, with thousands of American troops operating in support from South Vietnam and American aircraft providing vital air support. While the initial push met little resistance, around 30,000 PAVN troops soon organized to meet the incursion. Outfitted with heavy Soviet weaponry, North Vietnamese forces halted the South Vietnamese push. Organizational and command issues among the South Vietnamese compounded the attack. Heavy fighting on the ground risked a complete South Vietnamese defeat, resulting in President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu ordering a helicopter assault on Tchepone. Seizing the abandoned city (which was not the sole objective of the assault) and declaring a “victory,” the South Vietnamese moved to withdraw. Stymied by fierce resistance along the road home, the South Vietnamese suffered a casualty rate of nearly 50%, with the United States suffering nearly 1,500 casualties as well. Overall, the South Vietnamese armed forces proved ineffectual, and their morale plummeted. 

March 30 to October 22, 1972 – Launched a few days before the 1972 Easter holiday, the Easter Offensive was a massive North Vietnamese push against South Vietnam utilizing conventional forces supplied with tanks and artillery. A three-pronged attack using most of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), four divisions were sent across the DMZ and two more divisions were deployed from positions in Laos towards Huế and Da Nang. Another powerful thrust utilizing three divisions from Cambodia sought to sweep across the Central Highlands and cut the Republic of Vietnam in half. The third prong of the offensive was focused on the far south, with three divisions attacking the town of An Loc just 70 miles north of Saigon. The offensive, organized by Võ Nguyên Giáp and Văn Tiến Dũng, calculated that a large assault would topple the government of President Thiệu. Less than 100,000 Americans were still stationed in South Vietnam, but under President Nixon’s Vietnamization program their focus had switched to training the South Vietnamese forces. American officials had expected a significant offensive, but were left surprised by the scale and ferocity – South Vietnamese forces were initially stunned by the massive assault. However, ARVN forces rallied and pushed back the attack. The offensive ended by May as the South Vietnamese were left to roll back Northern gains. By October 1972, fighting related to the Easter Offensive had ended. North Vietnamese forces suffered massive material and personnel losses, with anywhere between 40-75,000 killed and another 60,000 wounded. Yet, however well South Vietnam seemed to have performed on its own, this success was tempered. While suffering less significant casualties (around 10,000 dead), ARVN units had only turned back the attacking PAVN forces with massive American air support. The heavy reliance on American airpower was an ominous sign for Vietnamization and for the future of South Vietnam. 

May 9 to October 23, 1972 and December 18 - 29, 1972 – Although the United States never made any substantial effort to invade North Vietnam by land, the war was continually brought to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from the air. Operation Rolling Thunder had carried out select bombings in North Vietnam from March 1965 to October 1968 when the bombings were ended by President Johnson. Operation Linebacker began as a response to the North Vietnamese Easter Offensive in March 1972. The conventional invasion of South Vietnam by the North created clear supply routes and mass troop formations, which were easy targets for American airpower. American Air Force, Marine, and Navy aircraft carried out a sustained bombing campaign against these targets, flying more than 41,000 sorties. Mine-laying aircraft attacked Haiphong harbor, strategic B-52 bombers hit large facilities, and tactical bombers hit smaller targets. Linebacker played a large role in turning back the Easter Offensive, but 75 American aircraft were lost. In October 1972, as peace negotiations in Paris began to make substantial progress, the bombings were cut back. However, when negotiations broke down in December 1972, Linebacker II was initiated. Announced by President Nixon as a full-scale air campaign, it included a concentrated use of B-52 bombers and tactical aircraft. About 700 B-52 sorties and 1,000 fighter-bomber sorties were flown in a campaign lasting less than two weeks. The “Christmas Bombings” targeted areas in and around Hanoi itself. Around 30 American aircraft were lost during the operation. While there is still debate as to the ultimate effect of Linebacker II, the North Vietnamese did return to the negotiating table less than a month after the bombings ended. 

April 30, 1975 – The Paris Peace Accords had been signed in January 1973, and by March 1973 the American withdrawal from Vietnam was complete, leaving only Marine guards and an attaché in Saigon. Many in the North suspected that the U.S. would not re-intervene in the country again. General Giáp had been eased from power following the failed Easter Offensive, and General Văn Tiến Dũng had overall command as his successor. In January 1975, People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) troops seized the Phuoc Long province with no substantial resistance, clearly violating the Paris Peace Accords with no significant American response. On March 10, 1975, PAVN began a sustained offensive against the South. Attacking in the Central Highlands, PAVN forces captured Ban Me Thuot, a town just south of the Ia Drang Valley. Fearful of having his army divided, Republic of Vietnam President Thiệu ordered an evacuation of the Central Highlands that quickly devolved into a total rout. Adding to the tide, North Vietnamese army units stormed across the DMZ, capturing Huế on March 26, and Da Nang on March 30. Fleeing ARVN units melted away or were picked off by approaching PAVN troops. One ARVN unit – the 18th Division – did stage a heroic last stand at Xuan Loc, but was overwhelmed by April 11. President Gerald Ford hurriedly tried to rush a $722 million aid deal through Congress, but legislators rejected it out of hand. President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu resigned on April 21. On April 29, American forces carried out Operation Frequent Wind, the withdrawal of all American personnel and many South Vietnamese government workers and civilians. This massive aerial campaign allowed for the evacuation of 7,000 friendly personnel from Saigon, an effort memorialized by the rooftop evacuation of the American embassy. With the end of the evacuation, North Vietnamese troops stormed the city. The Vietnam War had come to an end.